ACTIVE BRAIN GAMES

Funding programme

Erasmus+ KA220-ADU – Cooperation Partnerships in Adult Education

Project reference

2024-1-PT01-KA220-ADU-000253511

Period

2024–2026

Coordinating organisation

Universidade Sénior de Oeiras (Portugal)

Participating countries

Portugal, Slovenia, Türkiye, Denmark

Official project website

Visit official website

ACTIVE BRAIN GAMES aimed to support healthy and active ageing through the development of accessible physical and digital games designed for older adults.

The project sought to promote cognitive engagement, social participation and appropriate physical activity through recreational experiences adapted to the abilities, interests and needs of older people.

Its educational approach combines cognitive challenges, reminiscence, social interaction and practical activities intended to encourage continued participation in lifelong learning.

Specific learning objectives

• Memory stimulation: Encourage participants to recall information, retrieve previous knowledge and share personal memories through game-based activities.
• Attention and concentration: Provide structured challenges requiring participants to focus on instructions, interpret information and maintain attention during gameplay.
• Logical reasoning: Engage older adults in activities involving pattern recognition, associations, simple problem-solving and analytical thinking.
• Language and communication: Stimulate conversation, verbal expression, listening and the exchange of experiences through individual and group challenges.
• Reminiscence and autobiographical memory: Encourage the recollection of past experiences, familiar information and personally meaningful events.
• Social interaction: Create opportunities for older adults to engage with peers, communicate, cooperate and participate in shared recreational activities.
• Intergenerational relationships: Support interaction between older people and younger family members through games that encourage the exchange of memories and personal experiences.
• Fine motor engagement: Provide activities involving the manipulation of physical components and manual coordination, with appropriate adaptations to individual abilities.
• Physical activity and mobility: Incorporate safe, low-impact movement activities appropriate to participants’ functional capacities.
• Digital participation: Offer accessible online games that allow older adults to engage with cognitive challenges using digital devices.
• Motivation and enjoyment: Encourage positive engagement with recreational and educational activities through accessible challenges and social participation.
• Individualised challenge: Adapt task difficulty, instructions and physical demands to participants with different cognitive and functional characteristics.
• Active ageing: Promote continued participation in learning, leisure and social activities as part of a broader approach to well-being in later life.
• Educator and caregiver competence: Provide practical resources for professionals and other facilitators working with older people, supporting the selection and implementation of appropriate game-based activities.

The project approaches games as tools for cognitive engagement and social participation rather than as clinical treatments. Its intended benefits for cognitive health and quality of life should be distinguished from outcomes demonstrated through validated assessment.

ACTIVE BRAIN GAMES developed physical and digital recreational resources designed to promote cognitive engagement, social interaction and appropriate physical activity among older adults.

The project distinguishes between a physical board game, a manual dexterity game and a collection of digital cognitive activities.

Games developed

1. Memory Walk – Physical Board Game

Memory Walk is an educational board game developed to stimulate memory recall, conversation and social participation among older adults.

The game incorporates activity cards containing questions and challenges intended to encourage participants to retrieve information, recall previous experiences and share memories with other players.

The project documents the use of the game during pilot testing in Portugal, Slovenia, Türkiye and Denmark, involving participants aged approximately 55–80.

Documented game characteristics

• Game format: Physical board game using activity cards, playing pieces and board-based tasks.
• Memory-based challenges: Tasks encourage participants to recall information, retrieve previous knowledge and share personal experiences.
• Social interaction: Gameplay provides opportunities for conversation, storytelling and discussion between participants.
• Intergenerational potential: The project reports that several participants expressed interest in playing the game with family members and grandchildren.
• Accessible components: The development process incorporated larger text, improved contrast and more ergonomic playing pieces.
• Adapted instructions: Task descriptions and rules were simplified following participant and professional feedback.
• Difficulty adjustment: Questions were organised into two levels, described as Light and Challenging, to accommodate different cognitive abilities.
• Physical accessibility: Movement-related tasks were reviewed to reduce unnecessary physical demands and support safe participation.
• Number of players: Not independently verified from the publicly accessible project descriptions.
• Playing time: No standard duration could be confirmed without a complete review of the game manual.

2. Manual Dexterity Game

A second physical game was developed to encourage manual dexterity, coordination and cognitive engagement through the manipulation of objects and the completion of practical activities.

The project provides a separate collection of printable cards for this game, indicating that it is a distinct educational resource rather than simply a variant of Memory Walk.

The documented development process emphasises accessibility, the adjustment of physical demands and the use of manageable tasks for older adults.

Although it involves physical components and game-based activities, it should be classified separately as a dexterity or physical activity game unless its complete rules establish that it functions as a conventional board game.

3. Digital Cognitive Games

The project’s initial description identifies two digital storytelling games and two digital analytical-thinking games. Its current online catalogue contains nine accessible game entries:

1. Remember the Image: A visual memory activity involving the observation and subsequent recognition or recall of images.
2. Word Search – Food & Drink: A word-search activity using familiar vocabulary associated with food and beverages.
3. Matching Pairs: A memory-matching activity involving the identification of corresponding pairs.
4. Maze Chase – General Culture: A digital activity combining maze-style interaction with general knowledge questions.
5. Country Anagram: A word-based challenge involving the reconstruction of country names from rearranged letters.
6. Country Map Matching: A geographical recognition activity involving the association of countries with their locations or representations on a map.
7. Airplane: An interactive digital game listed in the project catalogue. Its specific cognitive objectives and gameplay mechanics require individual verification.
8. Choosing Healthy Cake Ingredients: A digital activity connecting game-based choices with basic healthy eating concepts.
9. Mind Shield: An additional digital game included in the current catalogue. Its complete mechanics and learning objectives require individual verification.

Game approach

The physical board game, dexterity game and digital activities were developed within the Erasmus+ project.

Their common design principle is to provide accessible, enjoyable challenges suitable for older adults while encouraging cognitive engagement and participation.

Educational integration

In Memory Walk, the learning-related activity is primarily associated with answering questions, retrieving memories and sharing experiences through activity cards.

The manual dexterity game focuses on physical manipulation and coordination, while the digital collection includes memory, word, visual and reasoning activities.

These resources address different aspects of cognitive and social participation and should not be treated as a single board game intervention.

Game availability

The project provides publicly linked printable board game cards and dexterity game cards in English, Portuguese, Danish, Slovenian and Turkish.

The website also offers access to the online cognitive games, a methodological guidebook and a practical handbook.

Official resources:

• Physical Games – Project Resource Page
• Physical Game Cards and Printable Materials
• Digital Cognitive Games

ACTIVE BRAIN GAMES adopts a participatory and accessibility-oriented game-based learning approach that combines cognitive challenges, physical activities and social interaction for older adults.

The methodology is based on developing and adapting games to the characteristics, abilities and needs of the intended participants rather than assuming that a single level of challenge is appropriate for all older people.

The project combines physical board gameplay with manual dexterity activities and digital cognitive games, supported by methodological documentation and practical guidance for facilitators.

Methodological approach

1. Identification of participant needs: The project examined the characteristics and needs of older adults through research, consultation, observation and design-oriented activities.
2. Development of appropriate games: Physical and digital games were created to encourage cognitive engagement, social interaction and manageable physical activity.
3. Preparation of accessible materials: Game cards, instructions and components were designed or modified to improve readability, handling and ease of use.
4. Selection of suitable challenges: Facilitators can consider participants’ cognitive abilities, previous experiences and functional characteristics when selecting activities and difficulty levels.
5. Physical board gameplay: Participants use the game board and activity cards to complete challenges involving memory, recall, conversation and related cognitive tasks.
6. Reminiscence and shared experiences: Activities encourage participants to recall personal experiences and communicate memories to other players.
7. Manual and physical activities: Complementary games introduce practical tasks involving manipulation, coordination and safe low-impact movements.
8. Digital cognitive engagement: Online games provide additional opportunities for practising visual memory, word recognition, matching, reasoning and other forms of cognitive activity.
9. Social participation: Facilitators encourage interaction between players, creating opportunities for conversation, cooperation and the sharing of experiences.
10. Observation and adaptation: Participant responses and professional observations are used to identify difficulties and modify task complexity, physical demands or the presentation of materials.
11. Feedback and improvement: Information collected during testing contributes to the refinement of game components and the development of supporting educational resources.

Adaptation to older adults

A distinctive aspect of the methodology is its attention to differences within the older population.

The international pilot testing demonstrated that participants aged 55 and 80 may have substantially different preferences, cognitive characteristics and physical abilities.

In response, the consortium introduced two levels of cognitive challenge, Light and Challenging, and revised the physical and visual presentation of the games.

Changes included increasing text size, improving colour contrast, simplifying instructions, making playing pieces easier to handle and replacing physically demanding activities with safer low-impact alternatives.

Session structure

The project documents group-based testing and practical activities involving older adults and professionals.

However, the publicly reviewed descriptions do not establish a single mandatory sequence, duration or number of sessions for the complete intervention.

The physical board game, dexterity activities and digital resources may be used as complementary elements within a broader programme, but the exact scheduling and combination of activities require reference to the practical handbook.

Facilitator’s role

Educators, community workers, activity leaders and professionals supporting older adults have an important role in selecting appropriate games, explaining instructions and ensuring accessible participation.

Facilitators should take account of visual accessibility, manual dexterity, mobility, cognitive demands and participants’ preferences.

They can also encourage social interaction by allowing time for conversation, supporting the sharing of personal memories and avoiding unnecessary pressure to complete tasks quickly.

The project developed a methodological guidebook and a practical handbook intended to support the use of the games in educational and community settings.

Reflection and debriefing

Memory Walk creates opportunities for reminiscence and the exchange of personal experiences during gameplay.

These interactions can be meaningful components of the recreational and social experience, particularly when participants recall shared cultural references or discuss events from their lives.

However, the reviewed implementation reports do not establish a standardised post-game debriefing procedure or a validated method for assessing the quality of reminiscence and reflection.

The extent to which facilitators use structured reflection should therefore be verified from the complete handbook and actual implementation protocols.

Distinctive methodological feature

The project combines cognitive activities and social participation with explicit attention to age-related accessibility.

Its methodological value lies particularly in adapting game components and challenges through direct testing with older participants, rather than relying exclusively on the initial assumptions of game designers.

ACTIVE BRAIN GAMES was implemented through an Erasmus+ cooperation partnership involving four organisations from Portugal, Slovenia, Türkiye and Denmark.

The project combined research into older adults’ needs, collaborative game development, international training, prototype testing, participant feedback and the dissemination of physical and digital resources.

Implementation

• European consortium: The project was coordinated by Universidade Sénior de Oeiras (Portugal), with Tokat Gaziosmanpaşa University (Türkiye), Društvo Disora (Slovenia) and DGI Vestjylland (Denmark) as partners.
• Funding: The project received an Erasmus+ grant of EUR 120,000 under Cooperation Partnerships in Adult Education.
• Needs-oriented development: The consortium investigated the needs and characteristics of older adults to inform the design of appropriate physical and digital activities.
• Field observation in Türkiye: In May 2025, the Turkish university partner reported a visit to an elderly care home, involving conversations, observations and exchanges with older residents. The information collected contributed to discussions about game design and the needs of the target population.
• International Learning, Teaching and Training Activity: A three-day activity was held at Tokat Gaziosmanpaşa University, Türkiye, on 16–18 October 2025.
• Prototype testing: During the Turkish training activity, partners from the four participating countries tested prototypes of the physical board game and the manual dexterity game.
• Formative feedback: The international testing provided information about game usability, attractiveness, task difficulty and opportunities for improvement.
• Professional and academic dissemination: The October 2025 training coincided with an international conference on family and social sciences. The project newsletter reports that the conference attracted more than 500 participants. This figure refers to the conference audience, not to participants in the board game evaluation.
• International pilot testing: During 2026, Memory Walk was tested with older adults in Denmark, Portugal, Türkiye and Slovenia.
• Participant ages: The international testing report describes participants aged approximately 55–80 years.
• Social experiences: Project partners reported that participants engaged in conversations, shared memories and expressed enjoyment during the activities. Some participants also expressed interest in playing with family members and grandchildren.
• Accessible game development: Feedback from the four-country testing informed revisions to card readability, game piece ergonomics, task instructions and physical demands.
• Difficulty adjustment: The consortium introduced two levels of cognitive challenge, Light and Challenging, in response to differences observed between participants.
• Transnational project meeting in Slovenia: A meeting held in Maribor and reported on 10 July 2026 reviewed project progress, the development of the manual and accessibility improvements.
• Educational resources: The project website now provides a methodological guidebook, a practical handbook, printable cards for physical games and an online collection of cognitive activities.
• Multilingual dissemination: Resources are published in English, Portuguese, Danish, Slovenian and Turkish.
• Multiplier events: The project envisaged four national dissemination events and one international event. The official website describes these as project dissemination outputs, although complete attendance and evaluation records were not independently verified.

Evaluation approach

The project employed formative evaluation involving prototype testing, participant observations and feedback from older adults and professionals.

The testing process focused on the accessibility, usability, clarity and suitability of the games for the intended participants.

In particular, the consortium examined the readability of activity cards, the complexity of instructions, physical demands, the handling of playing pieces and differences in cognitive challenge between participants.

The project also reported observations of enjoyment, social interaction, reminiscence and willingness to participate in future games.

Documented findings

• Social participation: Participants engaged in conversations and shared personal experiences during the Memory Walk pilot sessions.
• Reminiscence: Activity cards prompted the recollection of previous knowledge and personal memories.
• Enjoyment: Project reports describe positive reactions, laughter and enthusiasm during the activities.
• Intergenerational interest: Some participants expressed interest in playing the game with younger family members.
• Visual accessibility: Testing identified the need for larger text and improved colour contrast.
• Physical accessibility: The consortium recognised the need for more ergonomic playing pieces and safer low-impact movement activities.
• Cognitive differentiation: Differences between participants motivated the introduction of Light and Challenging difficulty levels.
• Game usability: Rules and instructions were simplified to improve understanding and reduce unnecessary complexity.

Evidence classification

Educational resources: Physical and digital games, printable materials, methodological guidebook and practical handbook publicly documented.

Implementation: International prototype testing and pilot sessions involving older adults in four countries documented.

Formative evaluation: Participant feedback and professional observations used to modify accessibility, game components and task difficulty.

Participant experience: Positive descriptive reports concerning enjoyment, reminiscence and social interaction.

Cognitive effectiveness: No sufficiently documented controlled evaluation demonstrating improvements in memory, attention, executive functions or general cognitive performance attributable to gameplay was identified.

Long-term outcomes: No longitudinal evidence was identified demonstrating a reduction in cognitive decline, prevention of dementia or sustained improvements in quality of life resulting from the intervention.

Methodological limitations

The available evaluation evidence mainly consists of project-generated descriptions of testing, participant experiences and design improvements.

The reviewed sources do not provide sufficiently detailed information about sample sizes in each country, recruitment procedures, participant characteristics, standardised intervention duration or validated cognitive assessment instruments.

No control group or comparative study isolating the effects of Memory Walk from social contact, other activities or previous cognitive differences was identified.

The project’s positive reports of engagement and reminiscence should therefore be interpreted as evidence of participation and acceptability, rather than proof of cognitive improvement.

Furthermore, the project offers multiple types of games. Any future evaluation should distinguish the effects of the physical board game, the dexterity game and the digital cognitive activities.

Evidence status: Game development, implementation and accessibility-oriented formative evaluation documented. Clinical or objective cognitive benefits not established in the reviewed sources.

ACTIVE BRAIN GAMES provides a multilingual collection of physical and digital recreational resources designed to support cognitive engagement, social interaction and active ageing among older adults.

Available educational resources

• Memory Walk Board Game: An original physical board game using activity cards to encourage memory recall, conversation and the sharing of personal experiences.
• Board Game Cards: Printable activity cards available in English, Portuguese, Danish, Slovenian and Turkish.
• Manual Dexterity Game: A separate physical game involving practical tasks and manual coordination.
• Dexterity Game Cards: Printable game cards provided independently from the main board game materials.
• Editable Dexterity Game Materials: The project offers links to editable resources for the dexterity game, facilitating modifications and adaptation to different participants.
• Color Pattern Game: A supporting activity involving the recognition, interpretation or reproduction of colour patterns.
• Coloring with Numbers: A complementary activity based on numerical guidance and colour selection.
• Methodological Guidebook: A project publication presenting methodological guidance and pedagogical frameworks for implementing game-based activities with older adults.
• Project Handbook: A practical manual presented by the project as containing game rules, operational instructions and guidance for conducting activities.
• Multilingual Documentation: Both principal project publications are available through the official website in English, Portuguese, Danish, Slovenian and Turkish.
• Digital Cognitive Games: Nine activities currently listed on the project website, including visual memory, word search, pair matching, general knowledge, country anagrams and geographical recognition games.
• Digital Exhibition: A project gallery documenting activities, events and implementation milestones.
• Project Newsletters: Publications reporting international cooperation, game testing, accessibility improvements and dissemination activities.
• Implementation Reports: Public articles documenting the testing of Memory Walk in four countries and the use of participant feedback to refine the games.

Open licensing

The official project website states that its educational resources are made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International licence (CC BY-NC 4.0).

This framework permits sharing and adaptation under the applicable conditions, including attribution and restrictions on commercial use.

Users should verify the specific licence attached to each downloadable file before modifying or redistributing individual resources.

Transferability

The availability of printable cards and multilingual documents supports the implementation of the project activities outside the original consortium.

The game’s accessible design considerations are particularly relevant for adult education centres, senior universities, community organisations and facilities providing recreational activities for older adults.

Educators can also use the documented accessibility principles to adapt other board games, including commercially available recreational games.

These principles include increasing text size, improving visual contrast, simplifying complex instructions, reducing demanding motor actions and offering differentiated levels of cognitive challenge.

The online games provide additional opportunities for individual or group activities where suitable digital devices are available.

Replicability assessment

The project provides public access to printable game cards, supporting materials, methodological publications and digital games.

This represents a substantial improvement over projects where the original website or educational results are no longer available.

However, the current public listing of files does not by itself establish that every component required to reproduce a complete physical copy of Memory Walk has been independently verified.

Similarly, the project’s implementation reports describe the educational approach, but complete independent replication of its evaluation would require more detailed information about participants, session protocols and assessment procedures.

Replicability status: Public game resources and methodological documentation available; complete physical reproduction and independent replication of learning-outcome evaluation require further verification.

Official resources:

• Project Results – Guidebook and Handbook
• Printable Board Game and Dexterity Game Cards
• Online Cognitive Games

ACTIVE BRAIN GAMES represents an interesting example of game-based learning for older adults, combining memory-oriented board gameplay, manual dexterity activities, digital cognitive challenges and social participation.

Its principal methodological contribution lies in developing and adapting recreational resources to the needs of older participants through direct user testing, accessibility improvements and differentiated levels of cognitive challenge.

Methodological strengths

1. User-centred game development. The project involved older adults in practical testing and used their experiences to refine the games. This is particularly relevant because cognitive, sensory and functional characteristics vary substantially among people in later life.
2. Attention to accessibility. The consortium made concrete adjustments to improve readability, simplify instructions, increase visual contrast and facilitate the manipulation of game components. These adaptations are relevant to both original educational games and existing recreational board games.
3. Differentiated cognitive difficulty. The introduction of Light and Challenging question levels recognises that chronological age alone is insufficient to determine the appropriate complexity of an activity. Providing alternative levels may improve the suitability of the games for heterogeneous groups.
4. Reminiscence as a social activity. Memory Walk encourages participants to retrieve personal experiences and share memories with others. This creates opportunities for communication, storytelling and the exchange of autobiographical information.
5. Intergenerational potential. The project reports that some participants expressed interest in playing with their children or grandchildren. This suggests a potentially valuable application in family activities where different generations can interact through shared recreational experiences.
6. Integration of cognitive and social engagement. The activities do not focus exclusively on solving individual cognitive exercises. They also provide opportunities for conversation, laughter, mutual support and participation in a shared experience.
7. Combination of physical and digital resources. The project offers different formats that may accommodate diverse preferences and educational settings. Physical games support tangible interaction, while digital activities provide additional options for cognitive engagement.
8. Attention to physical safety. The revision of movement-related activities demonstrates awareness that game-based interventions for older adults must consider mobility, fatigue and functional limitations.
9. International testing. Pilot activities were conducted in four European countries, providing opportunities to identify usability issues across different linguistic and cultural contexts.
10. Professional involvement. Feedback from professionals and facilitators contributed to decisions concerning game difficulty, accessibility and physical requirements.
11. Multilingual and openly accessible resources. The availability of printable cards, guides and digital games in several languages supports dissemination beyond the original project partnership.

Methodological limitations

1. Cognitive engagement is not equivalent to cognitive improvement. Completing memory, attention or reasoning tasks demonstrates participation in cognitively demanding activities, but does not automatically establish improvements in the underlying cognitive functions.

Claims concerning memory enhancement or the prevention of cognitive decline require appropriate longitudinal assessments and controlled comparisons.

2. Lack of objective cognitive outcome measures. The reviewed implementation reports do not provide sufficiently detailed results from validated neuropsychological instruments or other objective assessments of cognitive change.

Consequently, it is not possible to determine whether Memory Walk improves memory performance, attention or other cognitive abilities beyond the immediate game experience.

3. Limited differentiation of intervention components. The project combines a board game, manual dexterity activities and digital cognitive games. These formats involve different learning processes and should not be treated as a single homogeneous intervention.

Future evaluations should distinguish their respective contributions and examine whether combining them produces additional benefits.

4. Dependence on task content. The available descriptions indicate that Memory Walk relies substantially on activity cards involving recall and questions. The educational value may therefore depend more on the cognitive and social content of the tasks than on strategic decisions within the board game itself.

Without a complete analysis of the final rules, the degree of intrinsic integration between cognitive objectives and the underlying game mechanics remains uncertain.

5. Risk of excessive reliance on cognitive exercises. Games developed specifically for cognitive stimulation may prioritise memory tests, matching activities and factual questions over deeper recreational mechanics.

Such activities can be engaging, but their sustained recreational appeal should not be assumed. Evaluating whether participants voluntarily choose to replay the games would provide valuable information about their long-term usability.

6. Heterogeneity of older adults. The wide age range observed during pilot testing illustrates the diversity of the target population. However, chronological age alone does not adequately represent cognitive ability, educational background, sensory conditions, previous gaming experience or functional independence.

Adaptation should therefore be based on individual characteristics and preferences rather than age-based assumptions.

7. Evaluation focused mainly on acceptability. Feedback concerning enjoyment, social interaction, readability and usability is valuable for improving the games, but does not constitute evidence of lasting cognitive benefits.

8. Absence of a documented control group. No comparative study was identified that would allow the effects of the board game to be distinguished from ordinary social interaction, other recreational activities or cognitive exercises without a board game structure.

9. Unverified long-term outcomes. The available sources do not demonstrate that participation leads to sustained improvements in memory, reduced loneliness, better functional independence or slower cognitive decline.

10. Incomplete methodological transparency. Although the project provides manuals and printable resources, the reviewed public reports do not establish a fully standardised evaluation protocol with participant selection criteria, assessment instruments, intervention dosage and statistical results.

Ludus Magnus assessment

ACTIVE BRAIN GAMES provides a valuable example of how board games can be developed and adapted for older adults through a participatory process informed by user feedback.

Its strongest contribution is the recognition that accessibility is an essential part of recreational design for heterogeneous older populations.

The changes introduced after pilot testing demonstrate practical attention to the experience of participants, particularly regarding visual presentation, component manipulation, task complexity and physical safety.

The project is also interesting because Memory Walk appears to combine cognitive challenges with reminiscence and social interaction.

From a Board Game-Based Learning perspective, this combination may be particularly relevant when the aim is not merely to practise memory tasks but also to create enjoyable opportunities for communication and social participation.

However, a critical distinction must be maintained between immediate engagement during cognitively stimulating activities and evidence of measurable changes in cognitive functioning.

Positive experiences, laughter, conversation and autobiographical recall are meaningful outcomes in their own right, but they should not be interpreted as proof that a game prevents dementia or delays age-related cognitive decline.

The project also raises an important question concerning the choice between developing new educational games and adapting existing recreational board games.

Many commercial modern board games already incorporate mechanisms involving working memory, attention, pattern recognition, spatial reasoning, planning, social interaction and decision-making.

Adapting such games through larger components, simplified rules, differentiated difficulty and appropriate facilitation could offer an alternative approach to developing new cognitive activity games from the beginning.

Commercial games may also offer an additional advantage: their recreational purpose exists independently of their educational application, potentially encouraging voluntary participation and repeated play.

This advantage should nevertheless be tested rather than assumed, since commercial games also vary considerably in accessibility, complexity and suitability for older players.

A particularly useful research direction would be to compare Memory Walk with an established recreational board game and with an equivalent non-game cognitive activity.

Such a comparison could assess cognitive engagement, participant enjoyment, social interaction, adherence and changes in validated cognitive measures over time.

It would also help determine whether the board game format provides additional benefits beyond those associated with social contact and cognitive exercise.

Transferable methodological lesson: Board-game-based activities for older adults should combine meaningful recreational experiences with accessible components, adaptable challenges and opportunities for social participation. However, positive engagement and perceived cognitive stimulation must be distinguished from demonstrated improvements in cognitive functioning. The educational value of purpose-designed games should be evaluated alongside the potential benefits of adapting existing recreational board games.